Low Cost Airlines Strategy Essay Example

Low Cost Airlines Strategy Essay Situation It’s a chilly winter evening in Bangalore and Vijay Mallya looks out of the window with a Kingfisher Beer pint in his hand. He looks out at the reddish horizon and contemplates the future of his airlines The Kingfisher Airlines. He has recently bought the first low cost carrier in India, Air Deccan. With the sale of Air Deccan, the industry has seen a correction of sorts, in terms of the cost of travel. With increasing oil rates and the turmoil that the airlines’ industry is currently in, Mallya needs to come up with a strategy to make best of the low cost carrier. He also needs to pull out the airlines of the losses it has been making since the past few years. Objective The objective is to study the current scenario in the Airlines Industry in India and to analyse the possible strategies that Kingfisher Airlines can adopt to increase the market share of Kingfisher Red to be the market leader in the low cost airlines segment. Company Background: Kingfisher Red, known formerly as  Simpli-fly Deccan  and prior to that as  Air Deccan, is a  low-cost airline  run by  Kingfisher Airlines. It is headquartered in Mumbai,  India. Formerly known as Air Deccan, the airline was previously operated by  Deccan Aviation. It was started by Captain  G. R. Gopinath. Less than expected growth in the Indian aviation sector coupled with overcrowding and the resultant severe competition between airlines resulted in almost all the Indian carriers, including Air Deccan, running into heavy losses. After initially trying to get in fresh capital for running the airline, Captain Gopinath eventually succumbed to pressures for consolidation. On 19 December 2007, it was announced that Air Deccan would merge with Kingfisher Airlines. We will write a custom essay sample on Low Cost Airlines Strategy specifically for you for only $16.38 $13.9/page Order now We will write a custom essay sample on Low Cost Airlines Strategy specifically for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Hire Writer We will write a custom essay sample on Low Cost Airlines Strategy specifically for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Hire Writer Since Indian aviation regulations prohibited domestic airlines from flying on international routes until they had operated in the domestic market for five years, it was decided to instead merge Kingfisher Airlines into Deccan Aviation, following which Deccan Aviation would be renamed Kingfisher Airlines. In its present avatar as Kingfisher Red, the airline faces stiff competition from SpiceJet, IndiGo Airlines, Jet Lite and GoAir. Kingfisher Airlines posted a net loss of Rs 1,608. 82 crore for fiscal 2009. Airlines Industry in India Indian aviation industry ranks 4th in the world after USA, China, and Japan in terms of domestic passenger volume, with a domestic passenger base of 43. 29 million. The Indian aviation industry is among one of the fastest growing industries. The number of scheduled passenger airline operator has grown to 15 and the number of aircraft in their fleet has risen to more than 400. India now has 82 operational airports against 50 in 2000. International flights have increased to 706 flights per week. Due to enhanced opportunities for international connectivity, 69 foreign airlines from 49 countries are flying into India. The governments open sky policy has lead to many overseas players entering the market and the industry has been growing both in terms of players and number of aircrafts. With the liberalization of the Indian aviation sector, the aviation industry in India has under gone a rapid transformation. From being primarily a government-owned industry, the Indian aviation industry is now dominated by privately owned full-service airlines and low-cost carriers. Private airlines account for around 80-85 per cent share of the domestic aviation market. Earlier, air travel was a privilege only a few could afford, but today air travel has become much cheaper and can be afforded by a large number of people. According to Director General of Civil Aviation(DGCA) passenger data, passenger carried by domestic airline operators have grown to 33. 9 million during January-August 2010 as against 28. 4 million over the same period a year ago. The share of private airlines constitutes around 82% of the sector of domestic aviation market. Jet Airways along with its budget arm Jet Lite captures the highest 27% market share. Kingfisher airlines ranks second with 20% market share. NACIL (National Aviation Company Limited) which, was formed in 2007 with the merger of two national carriers Air India and Indian Airlines, captures 18. 3% share. The airline with the largest fleet in the domestic market is Air India, but its market share of the number of passengers is low, and therefore results in a low fleet hare to passenger share ratio of 0. 62. Kingfisher leads the full service carrier segment with a fleet to market share ratio of 0. 95, but this also includes figures from their low cost Kingfisher Red service. Passenger market share leader Jet Airways is at 0. 82 and this includes their low fare service Jet Konnect. For a better comparison between Jet and Kingfisher, if we add-up the numbers of Jets other low fare subsidiary JetLite, the total group ratio of Jet at 0. 865 still remains well behind Kingfishers 0. 95, suggesting a far more aggressive fleet utilisation strategy by Kingfisher. Expectedly, the low fare carrier side shows much higher ratios, due to their higher usage of aircraft and also the higher number of seats offered per flight due to an all-economy configuration. The laggard is JetLite with a ratio of 1 while SpiceJet and IndiGo are neck and neck at 1. 75 and 1. 76. However, GoAir, has an industry leading, fleet to passenger share ratio of 2. 04. Clearly the airline has shaken off the demons of the past and is aggressive in their fleet utilisation. The civil aviation sector witnessed a slowdown in passenger traffic during 2008 due to a sharp rise in fuel prices coupled with global economic slowdown. Situation started improving in the second half of 2009. In 2009-10, the passenger traffic increased to 123. 73 million passengers from 108. 88 million in 2008-09. For the first time, in 2009 -10 the passenger traffic crossed 120 million mark and has recorded 123. 73 million (34. 37 million international and 89. 36 million domestic passengers) passengers. Passenger traffic (million) Source : AAI Traffic News June 2010 According to Director General of Civil Aviation passenger data, passenger carried by domestic airline operators have grown to 33. 9 million during January-August 2010 as against 28. 4 million over the same period a year ago. Recent Trend According to Airport Authority of India (AAI), the total aircraft movement increased by 3. 3% from 329. 84 thousand to 340. 9 thousand during Apr-Jun 2010 as compared to Apr- Jun 2009. The international aircraft movements have shown an increase of 7. 1% during Apr-Jun 2010. The higher growth in traffic has witnessed in Kolkata, Trivandrum, Amritsar and Delhi airport due to increase in frequency by the existing airlines. The civil aviation traffic with respect to passenger and aircraft movements is growing from past few years. The total passenger traffic handled during Apr-Jun 2010 raised by 20% to 35. 29 million from 29. 35 million over the same period previous year. During the first six months of 2010, world passenger traffic increased by 5. % with international traffic increased by 6. 7% and domestic passenger traffic increased by 5. 3%. The highest passenger traffic growth has reported in the Asia Pacific region. Demand Drivers Air traffic in the country has grown substantially over the past few years with a boom in the tourism industry as well as the introduction of low-cost airlines. The air transportation helps growth of interior regions which in turn helps industry / business sector to produce products at lower costs enabling competitiveness in the global market. India is one of the fastest growing economies in the world. Its share in the international trade and tourism is increasing gradually. Increase in income level (especially disposable income) along with introduction of low cost airlines has made air travelling affordable for the middle-class people. This results in growing demand for new airports in India. The Marketing Triangle One can better understand the workings of airlines by looking at its marketing triangle. There are three entities in the entire transaction: * Customer: He is the person who wishes to satisfy his need i. e. of transportation from one destination to another. Company: This is both the dreamer and the offerer. It is the various airlines, which offer its aviation services to satisfy the customers demand for transportation from one destination to another. For e. g. : The Indian airlines * Provider: these are finally the people who interact with the customers. They are the ones who carry out the final transaction. The customers actually come in contact with the service provid er and not the company. For e. g. : The Airhostess and the crew. The interaction between these three parties while providing the service takes place in the following manner: The Company is established with the basic objective of providing the specific transport service. Thus the airline industry with players like Indian airlines, jet airways, Sahara airways etc came into being. * The air service provider that is the company communicates with the customer and makes him aware of the services. It makes promises to the customer through advertising through various media. For e. g. : the TV ad of Indian airlines advertising its new sleep in seats. * The customer who gathers knowledge about the service approaches the company for availing his service in order to satisfy his need. This interface of the customer with the company is through the customer’s interaction with the providers of the company. The company enables its promises to the customers through setting up facilities to deliver the promises that is by setting up ticket and enquiry counters. The outcome of the â€Å"to be transaction† is determined by the interaction between the provider and the customer. Hence the company aims at offering its providers with the required infrastructure and training to optimize the quality of the transaction. For eg: Yearly employee training programs and performance appraisals done by Sahara airlines. The three strategic points where the provider and the customer interact are: * Ticket purchase at the airline counter or the ticket agency. * Checking in. * During boarding. * During disembarkation Kingfisher Airlines * Kingfisher Airlines  is an airline group based in  India. Its head office is Kingfisher House in  Vile Parle (East),  Mumbai. Kingfisher Airlines, through its parent company  United Breweries Group, has a 50% stake in  low-cost carrier  Kingfisher Red. Kingfisher Airlines is one of six airlines in the world to have a 5-star rating from  Skytrax, along with  Asiana Airlines,  Cathay Pacific,  Malaysia Airlines,  Qatar Airways  and  Singapore Airlines. Kingfisher operates more than 375 daily flights to 71 destinations, with regional and long-haul international services. In May 2009, Kingfisher Airlines carried more than a million passengers, giving i t the highest market share among airlines in India. * Kingfisher Airlines is also the sponsor of F1 racing outfit,  Force India, in which  Vijay Mallya  also owns a stake. Kingfisher Airlines was established in 2003. It is owned by the  Bangalore  based  United Breweries Group. The airline started commercial operations in 9 May 2005 with a fleet of four new  Airbus A320-200s  operating a flight from  Mumbai  to  Delhi. It started its international operations on 3 September 2008 by connecting  Bangalore  with  London. * On 7 June 2010 Kingfisher became a member elect of the  Oneworld  airline alliance  when it signed a formal membership agreement. A firm date to join the alliance will be announced once the implementation process is underway; it possibly may take 18 to 24 months. Kingfisher Red * Kingfisher Red, known formerly as  Simplifly Deccan  and prior to that as  Air Deccan, is a low-cost brand run by  Kingfisher Airlines. It is headqua rtered in Mumbai,  India. * Formerly known as Air Deccan, the airline was previously operated by  Deccan Aviation. It was started by Captain  G. R. Gopinath  and its first flight took off on 23 August 2003 from  Hyderabad  to  Vijaywada. It was known popularly as the common mans airline, with is logo showing two palms joined together to signify a bird flying. The tagline of the airline was Simpli-fly, signifying that it was now possible for the common man to fly. The dream of Captain Gopinath was to enable every Indian to fly at least once in his lifetime. † Air Deccan was the first airline in India to fly to second tier cities like Hubballi, Mangalore, Madurai and Visakhapatnam from metropolitan areas  like Bangalore and  Chennai. * On 25 January 2006, Deccan went public by filing a  red herring prospectus  with the  Securities and Exchange Board of India. Deccan planned to offload 25 percent of its stake in the  initial public offering (IPO) that opened on 18 May. However, due to the  stock market  downturn at that time, Air Deccans IPO barely managed to scrape through, even after extending the issue closing date and reducing the price band. * Less than expected growth in the Indian aviation sector coupled with overcrowding and the resultant severe competition between airlines resulted in almost all the Indian carriers, including Air Deccan, running into heavy losses. After initially trying to get in fresh capital for running the airline, Captain Gopinath eventually succumbed to pressures for consolidation. On 19 December 2007, it was announced that Air Deccan would merge with Kingfisher Airlines. Since Indian aviation regulations prohibited domestic airlines from flying on international routes until they had operated in the domestic market for five years, it was decided to instead merge Kingfisher Airlines into Deccan Aviation, following which Deccan Aviation would be renamed Kingfisher Airlines. This was because Air Deccan was the older of the two airlines, and therefore would be the first to qualify for flying on international routes. The merger became effective April 2008, with  Vijay Mallya  becoming the  Chairman  and  CEO  of the new company, while G. R. Gopinath became its  Vice-Chairman. competitors * SPICEJET * SpiceJet, Indias leading low cost airline, is a reincarnation of  ModiLuft. It is promoted by Ajay Singh and the Kansagra family. SpiceJet marked its entry in the Indian skies with  Rs. 99 fares for the first 99 days, with 9,000 seats available at this rate. * This deal was followed it up with a  Rs. 999 promotional scheme on select routes. Their marketing theme was offering low everyday spicy fares and great guest services to price conscious travellers†. Their aim is to compete with the  Indian Railways  passengers travelling in air conditioned coaches. Today, Spicejet operates 21 Boeing 737-800/900ER aircraft across 19 destinations and has a 12% share of the Indian market. * INDIGO * IndiGo Air  or  IndiGo Airlines  sports the deep colour of IndiGo as its signature colour. It is a privately owned low-cost domestic airline based in Gurgaon with Indira Gandhi International Airport as its main base. IndiGo Airlines started operations on 4th August 2006 and is owned by InterGlobe Enterprises and Mr. Rakesh Gangwal. This airline is amongst the best, offering professional services, economical prices with great deals and discounted airfares. It operates to all the major cities of India. IndiGo air tickets can be booked online and the services provided are user friendly while at the same time, extremely comprehensive. IndiGo Airline provides what no other airline can. * JET LITE * JetLite, formerly  Air Sahara, is an  airline  based in  Mumbai,  India  owned by  Jet Airways, the airline operates scheduled services connecting metropolitan centres in India, it operates 110 flights daily. The airline also provides helicopters which are available for charter services and aerial photography. * The airline was established on 20 September 1991 and began operations on 3 December 1993 with two  Boeing 737-200  aircraft as  Sahara Airlines. Initially services were primarily concentrated in the northern sectors of India, keeping Delhi as its base, and then operations were extended to cover all the country. Sahara Airlines was rebranded as  Air Sahara  on 2 October 2000, although Sahara Airlines remains the carriers registered name. On 22 March 2004 it became an international carrier with the start of flights from  Chennai  to  Colombo. It is part of the major  Sahara India Pariwar  business conglomerate. The uncertainty over the airlines fate has caused its share of the domestic Indian air transport market go down from approximately 11% in January 2006 to a reported 8. % in April. * Jet Airways  announced its first takeover attempt on 19 January 2006, offering US$500 million (2000  crore  rupees) in cash for the airline. [4]  Market reaction to the deal was mixed, with many analysts suggesting that Jet Airways was paying too much for Air Sahara. The Indian Civil Aviation Ministry gave approval in pr inciple, but the deal was eventually called off over disagreements over price and the appointment of Jet chairman  Naresh Goyal  to the Air Sahara board. Following the failure of the deal, the companies filed lawsuits seeking damages from each other. A second, eventually successful attempt was made on 12 April 2007 with Jet Airways agreeing to pay  Rs. 1,450 crore ($340  million). The deal gave Jet a combined domestic market share of about 32%. * On 16 April Jet Airways announced that Air Sahara will be renamed as JetLite. The takeover was officially completed on 20 April, when Jet Airways paid  Rs. 400 crore. * Jetlite has been repositioned as a value carrier offering attractive low fares. It stopped offering complimentary food on board and now offers it for purchase separately. Jet Airways has withdrawn from many of its routes and has replaced it with Jetlite operations to compete with full service carriers operating on those sectors. Market Share Reference:  Directorate General of Civil Aviation Load Factor Trend Reference:  Directorate General of Civil Aviation Cancellation Data Reference:  Directorate General of Civil Aviation Airline Industry- Life Cycle From the mid-1990s to the beginning of the new millennium, the aviation industry faced one of the biggest booms in its history. Worldwide increases in GDP, riding on the wave of the new economy, and a greater demand for travel resulting from globalization stimulated the airlines to healthy growth of around 4-6 percent per year. At the beginning of 2000, economic slowdown brought an end to the growth phase, and the terrorist attacks of 11 Sep 2001 and the SARS virus in 2003 exacerbated the situation. There has always been a fundamentally precarious balance within the industry profit generation and loss. One of the biggest exceptions to this rule occurred during the 1990’s, when the global economic upturn boosted travel demand. Furthermore the major airlines gained from the new economy in terms of computer technology progress, which enables new business processes such as ‘network management’ or ‘yield management’, e-commerce and e-services to be supported. Quantitative analyses permitted the improvement of demand forecasting and the optimization of seats supplied in the network. Nevertheless, during these years, a group of airlines, knows as low-cost carriers, were able to generate profits and positive growth by generating a cost advantage, no frills, and a point to point network business model, in contrast to the traditional hub and spoke national flag carriers. Nowadays, the LCC business model is quite popular and is advocated as an alternative, or sometimes as a complement, for the traditional airline business model, which, on the contrary, aims to cover all market segments and city-pairs. Airline’s is a typical industry where the net margins are very low. This could be attributed mainly due to the high fuel costs, Govt. Taxes and force from people to get the cheapest travel. So if we look at the below figure we understand there is a continuous crest and trough’s in the industry life cycle. Every time the industry goes down in margins the major players try to renew it with various offerings. In the last quarter of 2000, the fundamentally precarious balance between revenue and cost turned negative. The crisis initially started as demand slowdown followed by the cost impact of overcapacity from the supply side. Different from the situation for airlines during the Iraq war in 1991, some other additional factors turned the crisis into a perfect storm for global aviation: 1) The crisis of 2000 started at the time of a positive peak just before an economic downturn 2) The terrorist attacks of September 11 generated fear of air travel and constituted an exogenous demand shock. ) The 2003 Iraq war, together with the SARS epidemic, caused a second exogenous demand shock. 4) The full-service carriers were making few business innovations compared with the network and yield management practices developed in the 1990s The low cost business model was developed in the early 1970’s in the US but it was after more than 2 decades that it came to India. It was initially perceived a regional phenomenon, limited to a niche market which was willing to pay only less and connecting secondary city-pairs. The competitive pressure associated with the evolution of low cost models affected the traditional airlines models. Their reactions was to tend to adopt cost cutting strategies as they were driven to adopt some of the characteristics of the low-cost airlines in an attempt to survive. Challenges faced by Aviation Industry The growth in the aviation sector and capacity expansion by carriers have posed challenges to aviation industry on several fronts. These include shortage of workers and professionals, safety concerns, declining returns and the lack of accompanying capacity and infrastructure. Moreover, stiff competition and rising fuel costs are also negatively impacting the industry. 1. Employee shortage: There is clearly a shortage of trained and skilled manpower in the aviation sector as a consequence of which there is cut-throat competition for employees which, in turn, is driving wages to unsustainable levels. Moreover, the industry is unable to retain talented employees. 2. Regional connectivity: One of the biggest challenges facing the aviation sector in India is to be able to provide regional connectivity. What is hampering the growth of regional connectivity is the lack of airports. 3. Rising fuel prices: As fuel prices have climbed, the inverse relationship between fuel prices and airline stock prices has been demonstrated. Moreover, the rising fuel prices have led to increase in the air fares. 4. Declining yields: LCCs and other entrants together now command a market share of around 46%. Legacy carriers are being forced to match LCC fares, during a time of escalating costs. Increasing growth prospects have attracted amp; are likely to attract more players, which will lead to more competition. All this has resulted in lower returns for all operators. 5. Gaps in infrastructure: Airport and air traffic control (ATC) infrastructure is inadequate to support growth. While a start has been made to upgrade the infrastructure, the results will be visible only after 2 3 years. 6. Trunk routes: It is also a matter of concern that the trunk routes, at present, are not fully exploited. One of the reasons for inability to realize the full potential of the trunk routes is the lack of genuine competition. The entry of new players would ensure that air fares are brought to realistic levels, as it will lead to better cost and revenue management, increased productivity and better services. This in turn would stimulate demand and lead to growth. 7. High input costs: Apart from the above-mentioned factors, the input costs are also high. Some of the reasons for high input costs are: Withholding tax on interest repayments on foreign currency loans for aircraft acquisition. Increasing manpower costs due to shortage of technical personnel. . Seasonal Business: Airline is an industry that’s seasonal, having peak season during april may, holidays etc. But the trend in slightly shifting as the number of people has been increasing. 9. Exogenous events can suddenly affect demand- As said earlier in the life cycle, any exogenous events could have a huge negative impact in occupancy rate. In the near future, Kingfisher Red may have to face significant challenges such as: * Realigning their com petitive strategies to become profitable. More Players entering the Low cost carrier segment. * Pursuing aggressive cost reduction. * Constraints due to poor infrastructure for aviation in India. EMERGENCE OF LOW-COST AIRLINES IN INDIA For the first 15 years of deregulation the demand for scheduled passenger air transportation was driven by the constraints and confines of its providers principally, the network carriers. Network carriers were able to avoid cost-side pressures by focusing on revenue side strategies – largely centered on the high yield business traveller. The focus led to innovations like sophisticated global distribution system, revenue management, and frequent flyer programs that helped the airlines segment demand. You are – or we were – the linchpin in that strategy, as business and other time–sensitive travellers accounted for only 20% of the airline traffic, but for 80% of network airline. This strategy worked because the business traveller grew accustomed to paying high fares and often did not have an attractive alternative to the high fare, and also because the airlines enjoyed a greater ability to control the number of seats available to discretionary travellers. In short, in the post-regulation world travellers – particularly business traveller – did have the greater option than before, but, even with the impact of the occasional low-fare carrier, they were often at the mercy of major carriers when it came to price. In effect, demand for passenger service was driven, even controlled, by the supply that network carriers were willing to deploy in the market. The above reasons and the price transparency that the internet has created for all types of passengers have led to the emergence of a new breed of low-cost carriers. These developments have seriously compromised the ability of legacy carriers to charge higher prices to travellers on the routes where they overlap with the low-cost carriers. At the end of 2000 the demand for the business class and other high-end products fell dramatically, as the corporate travel managers became more cost-conscious. Customers continue to fall into segments with regard to demand for products on offer. Not every airline will be able to satisfy every customer but the entrance of low cost airlines has pushed customer segmentation. There is a sharper focus for the shorter routes and the target is the price conscious and quality conscious customer. This has led to stiffer competition for the non–business passenger and price conscious business passenger. Low Cost Carriers The entry of these low cost carriers has several far reaching implications on the aviation sector in India. Now low cost airlines have proliferated and offer real, lasting competition to their network rivals. This generation of low cost carriers has newer fleets, a better on-time performance and completion factors than the first wave of post-deregulation start-ups. The fare transparency delivered by the internet and the expansion of low cost carriers has increased the price-sensitivity even of business passenger. The demand for more affordable air travel is quite robust. Increasing numbers of business travellers use low fare airlines as a matter of corporate travel policy whichever country they have been launched in. It has to a very large extent influenced the mass transportation and domestic tourism. Typical low-cost carrier business model practices include: 1. A single passenger class 2. A single type of airplane (commonly the Airbus A320 or Boeing 737), reducing training and servicing costs). 3. A simple fare scheme (typically fares increase as the plane fills up, which rewards early reservations) 4. Unreserved seating (encouraging passengers to board early and quickly) 5. Flying to cheaper, less congested secondary airports and flying early in the morning or late in the evening to avoid air traffic delays and take advantage of lower landing fees 6. Short flights and fast turnaround times (allowing maximum utilization of aircraft) 7. Simplified routes, emphasizing point-to-point transit instead of transfers at hubs(again enhancing aircraft utilization and eliminating disruption due to delayed passengers or luggage missing connecting flights) 8. Emphasis on direct sales of tickets, especially over the Internet (avoiding fees and commissions paid to travel agents and Computer Reservations Systems) 9. Encouraged use and issuance of the electronic ticket 10. Employees working in multiple roles, for instance flight attendants also cleaning the aircraft or working as gate agents (limiting personnel costs) 11. Free in-flight catering and other complimentary services are eliminated, and replaced by optional paid-for in-flight food and drink (which represent an additional profit source for the airline). 12. Aggressive fuel hedging programs. 13. Unbundling of ancillary charges (showing airport fees, taxes as separate charges rather than as part of the advertised fare) to make the headline fare appear  lower. Strategies o f LCC: Cost advantage: Low cost airlines provide air service at costs 25-50% lower than a full service airline. The cost structure of a full service Indian airline is given in the figure below: An Illustration of the Cost structure of Full Service Airlines as a % of Operating Expense: (Source: ICRA report, Civil Aviation, April 2005) Breakdown of Cost savings (Source: www. indiastats. com) The cost advantage of the low cost carrier is a result of savings on various factors given below: Full service airlines provide their passenger with many attendant services like hot meals, frequent flyer programmes, spacious legroom etc. While low cost carriers do not provide frills like hot meals and frequent flyer programmes and work with the minimum number of air hostesses on the flight. Removing business class, storage space for the meals and limited seat pitch (maximum inclination of the seat) makes space for additional seats which can increase the seat capacity of the plane by 20%. Low cost carrier aircrafts take less time to leave the airport after landing which increases their flight time by 20-25% as compare to the full service carrier aircrafts. These airlines do not issue tickets to passengers to save costs on printing, mailing and processing tickets. Passengers are issued a booking number, which they quote at airport check-in, and present their photograph to collect their boarding pass. They also save on distribution costs by disinter mediating travel agents and central reservation systems and selling through internet and call centre. They also try to minimize capital costs and costs of the crew and hangerage. In Europe and the U. S. low cost airlines avoid flying into the mainland airports and save on high parking and landing fees. India has very few secondary airports, because of which the airport charges constitute a sizeable portion of the cost structure that could be reduced considerably. The LCC Phenomenon in India Southwest Airlines, now a major carrier in the U. S. , operating local routes in Texas in the 1970s pioneered the low cost carrier business model. In India, the model was introduced in 2003 by Air Deccan. However, the same descriptive label masks the significant differences in ways the model has worked in India vs. U. S. First, in terms of market share, LCCs accounted for almost 30% of all domestic passengers carried in 2006. As of November 2006, it rose to 35%. This rate of market penetration of LCCs is remarkable given that the market share was zero in August 2003. Low cost carrier operations account for 44% of all flights within India compared to 19% in the U. S.. The second significant difference has to do with the relationship between low cost and low fare. In U. S. , the LCCs offering low fares are also truly low cost operations. In India, the airlines that offer low fares are in reality not low cost operations. They are LCCs only in name. Among the LCCs in India, Spice Jet has the lowest unit cost at 6. cents per ASK, which is comparable with Southwest, Easy Jet, and Jet Blue. But this is more than twice that of the best performer, Air Asia with unit cost of slightly over 3 cents per ASK.. This flies in the face of what LCCs outside India like Ryanair have done when th

What is Christian ethics Research Paper Example

What is Christian ethics Research Paper Example What is Christian ethics Paper What is Christian ethics Paper The term ethics deals with what is morally right or wrong. Christian ethics therefore, deals with what is morally right or wrong for a Christian. There are several distinguishing characteristics of Christian ethics, each of which play a vital role to its analysis. Some Christians will base their ethics solely on the Bible and its teachings, others will base their ethics on the biblical teachings but also on Church tradition and Natural Law, others will follow a Situation or virtue ethics approach and others will look to their conscience as a guide. Christian ethics is based on Gods will and is a form of divine command position. However, God never wills anything contrary to his unchanging moral character. The ethical imperatives that God gives are in accord with his unchangeable moral character. That is, God wills what is right in accordance with his own morals Be Holy because I am Holy. Christians believe the scriptures transmit the Word of God: this gives them authority. The weight of authority given to the Bible is dependent on what exactly a Christian believes about the books. Some Christians believe that humans were inspired by God to write down the scriptures which means the writings are related to the time and culture when they were recorded and may contain human errors. This makes them a useful source of guidance to people but does not make their contents absolute. Others believe the Bible contains Gods words handed down directly to humans. This makes these writings divine and makes them the highest authority their rules and codes are absolute. The New Testament has particular importance for Christians because it records the teachings of Jesus, whom Christians regard as Gods Son sent to earth to save humanity. They also believe it is essential to follow Jesus teachings if they are to be saved. The Divine Command theory is a strong part of Christian ethics as it poses a vital belief the argument is that something is good simply because God commands it and for no other reason. This is one side of Euthyphros dilemma and states that we cannot apply reason or verify it in any way. For example, if God were to command a cruel dishonest action such as murdering an innocent man then it would be right simply because he commanded it. Many Christian thinkers, including Aquinas and more recently William Temple, have rejected the Divine Command Theory because they say some things are innately good or bad. Temple said, In its nature, the moral judgement is quite wholly independent of religion. The Roman Catholic Church accounts for the majority of Christians in the world, and is the largest religious organisation of any religion. Within Catholic theology, Natural Law holds a dominant position. Aquinas has emphasised reason as a tool for showing that certain acts are intrinsically right or wrong, as they go against true purpose; certain absolutes, such as sanctity of life, cannot be changed by the circumstances. The Church encourages a range of different approaches, but when it comes to official church teaching, the vast majority of statements, encyclicals etc. are strongly in-line with Natural Law. Within other denominations, Natural Law theology still has a significant impact. Many Christians adopt deontological positions and think we should act according to Gods design or purpose for our lives. They may be less influenced by Aquinas in this, and Protestants tend to be less sure about moral absolutes. However, there is still a strong sense of following rules within most Christian denominations. Christians believe Natural Law is God-given and as such has authority in the formulation of an ethical code. Catholics also consider that conscience plays an important part in Christian ethical decision-making. Here conscience is not seen as some inner voice which will point us in the right direction but something of reason and judgement. Christians regard their conscience as the ultimate guide for making moral decisions because it was given to them by God and represents the voice of the Holy Spirit within them. Prayer worship and the teaching of the Church also assist the conscience, which Aquinas described as reason-making moral decisions. Very liberal Protestants may have a situationist approach to Christian ethics. Situation ethics presumes it is not necessary to abandon moral autonomy, nor is it necessary to act in an antinomianistic or legalistic way. In any situation people need to avoid subjectivism and individualism, and to use the moral rules of the community, but they should set these aside if love is better served by doing so, therefore being based on the Christian principle of agape unconditional love. Joseph Fletcher explained this theory in his book about situation ethics and it became apparent that he believed that love always takes the priority, even over laws against lying, stealing, adultery and murder. For example, this could be applied in a situation where it would be wrong to use someone for sexual pleasure as there was no love involved. Virtue ethics is also an important source for Christian ethics. Instead of focusing on acts or ends, virtue theory holds that people should think about becoming better people, and prescribes qualities which constitute goodness. So while a utilitarian seeks to bring about the end with the greatest good for the greatest number, and Aquinas encouraged people to do actions which accorded with the natural law and avoid those which didnt, virtue theorists encourage people to look to self-improvement. This links to love as being the highest of all virtues and also the rationale for all virtues but just in different circumstances. The virtues, for Christian ethics point towards the goal for which we aim, even if we do not achieve it in life. In conclusion, it is evident that Christians set out to follow the Will of God. They use various sources of authority to discover what the Will of God is and I have mentioned these different types of foundations of the religion in my essay which has proved that whilst most Christians would recognise them as sources of authority, they are likely to place a different emphasis on their relative importance.

Rubrics In Evaluating Student Works Case Study Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1750 words

Rubrics In Evaluating Student Works - Case Study Example The author citing (Nitko, 2001) (Moskal, 2000) said, " A holistic rubric requires the teacher to score the overall process or product as a whole, without judging the component parts separately. In contrast, with an analytic rubric, the teacher scores separate, individual parts of the product or performance first, then sums the individual scores to obtain a total score." Mertler, (2001) citing Chase (1999) suggested that holistic rubrics are customarily utilized when errors in some part of the process can be tolerated provided the overall quality is high. He cited Nitko (2001) further said that the use of holistic rubrics is probably more appropriate when performance tasks require students to create some sort of response and where there is no definitive correct answer Hence when talking of overall quality holistic is preferable aside from somewhat quicker scoring process than the use of analytic rubrics (Mertler, 2001, citing Nitko,(2001). This is basically due to the fact that the teacher is required to read through or otherwise examine the student product or performance only once, in order to get an "overall" sense of what the student was able to accomplish (Mertler, 2001). Mertler, 2001 citing Nitco ( 2001) prefers the use of analytic rubrics when fairly... it ( 2001) prefers the use of analytic rubrics when a fairly focused type of response is required, that is, for performing tasks in which there may be one or two acceptable responses and creativity is not an essential feature of the students' responses. He also suggested the use of the same in making an assessment on a multidimensional level. A rubric measures performance and measuring performance is just one of the functions of a teacher hence prior to design a specific rubric, a choice scoring holistically or analytically must be made.

The Cost of Justice Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

The Cost of Justice - Essay Example (Collins English Dictionary2011) Defining cost answers the question what is the cost of justice? Cost is defined as something that is not free. If something has a value it can be bought. In terms of being bought, can justice be bought? Justice is something that is supposed to be free to everyone. Everyone deserves the right to justice. In America justice does not live up to its definition. Justice can be bought for a cost. The cost can be money, freedom, discipline, or losing something. Many states offer justice for a cost. Justice can be very expensive when dealing on a statewide level. The cost is great for states wanting to keep justice free and well disciplined. The cost for justice in most states can be very expensive. The state of Virginia spends a great deal of funds on different expenditures. These expenditures can range anywhere from $10.00 to tens of thousands of dollars. justice may have out of pocket expenses. Some seeking justice have no way of paying and are required to seek justice from the state. Although that justice may be free to the individual, it is not free to the state or federal. Justice comes from somewhere at a specific cost. To make sure justice is served, states like the state of Virginia have costs. In 2005, â€Å"the average prisoner in a Virginia prison costs $31,200 for the year.† (Stephan.) If there are 500 prisoners, the costs for one year are well over ten million dollars. That is a lot of money to spend on justice for one year. That amount is only for prison expenditures. There is much other state expenditure that provides justice. Justice does come at other costs. Punishing others and sentencing them to prison is only one way to provide justice at a cost. Health care for corrections has an even bigger costs then keeping a prisoner. The state of Virginia, â€Å"spends over 4,333 million in corrections healthcare costs†. The costs for corrections are huge. After looking over some of the

The Geographical Description Of Orlando

The Geographical Description Of Orlando State of Florida is located on the Gulf Coast in the south-eastern United States. It is bordered to the west by the Gulf of Mexico, to the north by Alabama and Georgia, and to the east by the Atlantic Ocean. Orlando is a major city in the central region of the U.S. state of Florida. The geography of Orlando is mostly wetlands, consisting of many lakes and swamps. The terrain is generally flat, making the land fairly low and wet. In the area there are hundreds of lakes and the largest one is Lake Apopka. Central Floridas bedrock is mostly limestone and very porous. The Orlando area is susceptible to sinkholes. Orlando International Airport is the busiest airport in Florida. Located 10.5km (6.5 miles) southeast of Orlando, the airport is served by more than fifty airlines. In the airport there are more than 100 retail shops, food and beverage outlets, and the airport is a self-contained environment with full service banking, currency exchange, salon and post office. Duration of the flight from Scotland can take between 11 18.5 hours, possibly with a connecting flight from London. The Rosen Inn is located west of the airport and the transfer time from the airport to the hotel is approximately 20 minutes. Local Time Zone Orlando is in the Eastern Time Zone and it is 5 hours behind of Greenwich Mean Time (GMT) during the Eastern Standard Time and 4 hours behind of GMT during Daylight Saving Time. In Orlando the Daylight Saving Time (DST) started on Sunday, 13 March and will end on Sunday, 6 November. Description of Tour Operator Virgin Tour Operator has won several awards such as British Travel Award in 2007 and it is named Best Tour Operator to USA/Canada. The company was voted by the customer and received its third Best Package Holiday Company Long Haul award. Virgin Tour Operator offers excellent holiday packages to Florida and everywhere around the world. Virgin Holidays is the largest, extremely popular, and most successful transatlantic tour operator, it beats rival operators such as Thomas Cook and Jetlife. Description of Selected Holiday Walt Disney World Seaworld Orlando Rosen Inn Hotel Epcot Universal Orlando Resort Orlando International AirportThe holiday I have chosen as it was requested is in Orlando. The hotel that I selected is located in International Drive, which is one of Orlandos most lively and dynamic areas and is right in the centre of some of the worlds most famous theme parks and attractions, including museums, mini-golf courses and restaurants ranging from fast food to gourmet cuisine. Its also a shoppers paradise with designer outlet stores, shops and boutiques. The area can be explored by foot or by jumping on the I-Ride Trolley which served all the attractions along international Drive. Rosen Inn Hotel Within the hotel guests can enjoy Plaza Garden Restaurant, Lite Bite Deli with a late opening, Zebras Sports Bar and Grille with entertainment and bar menu until midnight. The smoking area is open on the outdoor patio deck. Smooth Java Coffee Bar is featuring Starbucks premium coffee products, fresh fruit smoothies and a variety of pastries. Food is served until midnight. The hotel has three swimming pools, electronic games room and childrens playground. Car hiring with free parking and breakfast are also included. Pointe Orlando shopping complex is on the opposite side offering some great clothes shops and twenty-one cinema screens. Free scheduled shuttle takes guests to the best attractions of the International Drive area. Universal Orlando Resort is 10 minute, Walt Disney Resort is 20 minute and SeaWorld Orlando is 5 minutes away from the accommodation. Resort representatives are available 7 days. Room Information All rooms have two double beds, featuring pillow-topped mattresses, radio alarm clock, refrigerator, microwave, coffee maker, electronic safe, iron and ironing board, TV with free Disney Channel and Premium Movie Channel. In-room pay-cinema channels are also available and there is a complimentary wireless internet in the rooms and throughout public areas of hotel. Rooms are air-conditioned and non-smoking. Climate Orlando has a subtropical and very humid climate. The average annual temperature is a comfortable 72.4  °F (22.4  °C). Average annual rainfall amounts to over 50 inches per year, keeping central Florida lush and green throughout the year. Prevailing winds are southerly at 9 mph. The average elevation of the region is 127 feet above sea level. There are two major seasons each year: Hot and rainy, lasting from June until late September. During this time the temperatures can be uncomfortably hot. Dry, warm season, from October through May; bringing less frequent rainfall, yet still with warm temperatures. Occasionally night time temperatures can plunge surprisingly low. Thunderstorms are common between May and September and tend to be short but heavy, offering some respite from the heat. Summer is also hurricane season from June to November. Of course everything is air conditioned in Orlando, the theme parks sell inexpensive umbrellas and rain parkas, and there are the water parks. Summer travel to Orlando Florida is still fun and winter travel is wonderful. Theme Parks Universal Orlando Resort Intl Drive North Area This is another exciting full day activity. At this real, working film and TV production facility visitors can go behind the scenes and jump right into the action of their favourite movies. Visitants can plunge into darkness on the psychological thrill ride, Revenge of the Mummy; see, hear and feel the action through the miracle of OgreVision in Shrek 4, save the earth from aliens on the interactive ride MEN IN BLACK Alien Attack, or experience the Universals newest coaster Hollywood Rip Ride Rockit. Walt Disney World Resort Area At Disneys Hollywood Studios is one of the best in popular entertainment. Visitors can experience what it feels like to be on the stage as a star from their own adventure and share it as part of the Magical Gatherings experience. Walt Disney World Resort Area Disney storytelling comes to life in a kingdom where visitors can see real and imaginary animals, thrilling attractions, shows and the majesty of the nature. This is another excellent day out offering lots of fun, wonder and adventure. Discovery Cove SeaWorld International Drive South Area Discovery Cove is a day of adventure and a lifetime of memories. Visitors can swim with dolphins, wade with mysterious rays, snorkel among thousands of tropical fish, and safely come eye-to-eye with sharks and barracudas, hand-feed exotic birds. Families can relax on genuine beaches and enjoy an all-inclusive day of discovery. Universals Islands of Adventure Universal Orlando Resort Intl Drive North Area It is an adventurous full day visit where visitors can experience five uniquely themed islands such as Seuss Landing, The Lost Continent, Jurassic Park, Toon Lagoon and Marvel Super Hero Island. Excursionists can battle villains in 3-D on The Amazing Adventures of Spider-Man, defy gravity as The Incredible Hulk Coaster takes them on a high-speed roller coaster rampage, escape the jaws of a T-Rex on the Jurassic Park River Adventure, brave white-water rapids on Popeye Blutos Bilge-Rat Barges or take a spin through the mischievous world of The Cat in the Hat. As newness The Wizarding World of Harry Potter provides visitors with a one-of-a-kind experience complete with multiple themed attractions, shops and a restaurant. Walt Disney World Resort Area Epcot is another fantastic full day visit where families have to opportunity to see fascinating cultures and numerous wonders of the world through dazzling shows, interactive experiences and amazing attractions. SeaWorld Orlando SeaWorld International Drive South Area In SeaWorld Orlando is an adventurous full day theme park where families can encounter up-close animal experiences, unforgettable performances, and the next generation of thrills. SeaWorlds all-new killer whale show connects guests to the sea, and killer whales, with a new level of energy and excitement while it educates and inspires them to make a difference in this world. Visitors can feed sea lions or get on the flying roller coaster. Orlando helps vacation adventures become lifelong memories. There is an onsite restaurant offering good selection of food to all families. Other attractions Gatorland 14501 South Orange Blossom Trail, Orlando Gatorland is located around 6.5 miles from the hotel. It is a 110-acre theme park and wildlife preserve, combining Old Florida charm with exciting, new exhibits and entertainment. It provides affordable-priced family fun with thousands of alligators, crocodiles, a childrens water park, aviary, breeding marsh with observation tower, petting zoo, nature walk, educational wildlife programs, gift shop, Floridas best train-ride, restaurant, and much more. Central Florida Zoo Botanical Gardens 3755 NW US Highway 17/92, Sanford, It is located around 30 miles from the hotel. It boast over 400 animals, 23 acres of native gardens, an Insect Zoo and Reptile House, a childrens zoo with animals, ZOOm Air Aerial Adventures, a splash playground, live animal encounters and many educational opportunities and demonstrations. Lake Eola Park 195 N Rosalind Avenue, Orlando Lake Eola Park is popular destination in the downtown area with beautiful surroundings, ideal for walking. Other activities available to park visitors include renting swan-shaped paddle boats, electric gondola boats, feeding the live swans and other birds inhabiting the park. Dangers of the weather Key rules for coping with heat are to drink plenty of water to avoid dehydration and to slow down and cool off when feeling fatigued, a headache, a high pulse rate or shallow breathing. Overheating can cause serious, even life-threatening conditions such as heat stroke. Dangers of heat include: Heat cramps: Exercising in hot weather can lead to muscle cramps, especially in the legs, because of brief imbalances in body salts. Cramps become less frequent as a person becomes used to the heat. Heat syncope or fainting: Anyone not used to exercising in the heat can experience a quick drop in blood pressure that can lead to fainting. As with heat cramps, the cure is to take it easy. Heat exhaustion: Losing fluid and salt through perspiration or replacing them in an imbalanced way can lead to dizziness and weakness. Body temperature might rise, but not above 38.8 °C. In some cases victims should be hospitalized. Heat exhaustion is more likely after a few days of a heat wave than when one is just beginning. The best defence is to take it easy and drink plenty of water. Dont take salt tablets without consulting a physician. Sunstroke: In some cases extreme heat can upset the bodys thermostat, causing body temperature to rise to 40 °C or higher. Symptoms are lethargy, confusion and unconsciousness. Even a suspicion that someone might be suffering from sunstroke requires immediate medical aid. Sunstroke can kill. How to avoid? It is strongly recommended to protect eyes from the rays of the sun by wearing sunglasses or a wide brim hat when being outdoors for an extended period of time. Avoid staying in direct sunlight between 10 a.m. and 16 p.m. During that period is suggested to stay in the shades. Strong physical activities should be postponed to periods when the temperature is at normal level and not above the bearable limit. It is essential to protect the skin from UV rays by using sun creams with high SPF values or umbrella. Jet Lag Jet lag is the temporary disruption of the body clock when flying across several time zones. This causes the travellers internal clock to be out of sync with the external environment. Causes of Jet Lag When traveling across a number of time zones, the body clock goes out of sync with the destination time, and so it experiences daylight and darkness contrary to the rhythms it has grown accustomed to. The bodys natural pattern therefore becomes upset as the rhythms which dictate when the person should eat and sleep no longer correspond to the environment of the destination. Jet lag occurs, because the body cannot automatically realign these rhythms. The speed at which the body readjusts itself to new daylight and darkness hours and eating and sleeping patterns is entirely dependent upon the individual. So while it may take a few days for certain people to readjust to a new time zone, others seem to experience little disruption to their bodys natural sleeping pattern. The symptoms of jet lag can be quite varied such as fatigue, exhaustion, inability to sleep, disorientation, lost desire to eat, headaches, stomach aches and a general feeling of fuzziness. How to reduce? Taking shoes off to ease pressure on feet, blindfolds, ear plugs, neckrests and blow-up pillows are all useful in helping to get quality sleep while flying. Walking up and down the aisle, standing for spells, and doing small twisting and stretching exercises in the seat, all help to reduce discomfort, especially swelling of legs and feet. The dry air in aircraft causes dehydration. Drinking plenty of non-alcoholic fluids counters this. Water is better than coffee, tea and fruit juices. Get plenty of exercise in the days prior to departure and try to avoid sickness such as the flu, colds and so on. Amenities of the area Local transport I-RIDE Trolley bus system is the only that services on International Drive and it is very popular by tourists. The regional public bus system that operates in Central Florida is called LYNX. The bus stops can be recognised by either a pink bus or a paw symbol on a round sign. Standard bus fare is $2 per person one way, with free transfers and daily passes also can be bought on the vehicles for $4.50. Weekly passes need to be purchased in advance from the website or outlets in the area and they cost $16. In addition, LYNX also offers a free bus system within Downtown Orlando called LYMMO. If you plan on using LYNX it is strongly recommended that you visit the official website for route information: www.golynx.com or call 407-841-LYNX. Money In the U.S dollar system one dollar equals 100 cents. One British pound is worth about $1.62 but this amount can be changed depending on the daily exchange rate. Currency changing facilities can be found at the airport, and many places offers money exchange in the International Drive such as major banks or the Visitor Centre. Food and Drink Orlando is becoming one of the top gastronomic places; the city offers a wide range of cuisine from all over the world. There are more than 4000 restaurants, breakfast buffets, steakhouses and so on. There are full-service restaurants at every theme park. However, some areas like International Drive offer a high conception of dining outlets. Well-known chains can be found such as Hard Rock Cafà ©, Outback Steakhouse, Planet Hollywood etcetera. One of Orlandos main dishes is the traditional African gumbo, but Moroccan Cous cous can also be mentioned which is made of beef or chicken with vegetables, Dim sum which is fried bread stuffed with meat, vegetables or fruit; the Mofongo which is fried banana with pork cracklings and garlic; and many other fantastic options. Other information Culture Orlando is influenced by many different cultures. For example there are evident Portuguese and Spanish cultural influences; the languages are still spoken in Orlando. In the city cultural opportunities offer a mix of modern and traditional entertainment for tourists such as live orchestral music, opera and ballet. The city has two professional ballet companies. Museums, theatres and galleries are also great choices for visitors. There are many cultural events which acknowledge the rich ethnic background of the people of Orlando. The heritage of nature and wildlife is also very noticeable in Orlando and it is home to some beautiful parks, lakes and bird and animal sanctuaries. History Florida was named and discovered by Juan Ponce de Leon in 1513 while he was looking for the mythical Fountain of Youth and claimed it for Spain. Florida was held by England and Spain at different times and later, in 1819 it was eventually sold to the United States. Before Orlando was only known for its citrus industries, cattle and cotton. Nowadays it had become one of the most executive tourist destinations. Tipping Tipping can be confusing in any country. Normally the tip is given to the staff is 15 20 %. Service personnel who tipped are like bartenders, drivers on public transports, table servers at dining venues, or beauticians. Porters are traditionally tipped $1 per bag. Many restaurants already include tips on the bill for groups of six or more. Therefore, its better to ask the staff if the tip has already been added to the check. Souvenirs There are lots of shops in International Drive, most of them Chinese-owned, and they are offering gifts for cheaper price than Walt Disney stores or the shops in the theme parks. In the souvenir shops T-shirts, tags, jewellery, pyjamas, costumes and a lot more can be purchased. It is guaranteed that everyone finds something unique and nice.

Surface Pressure Measurements on an Aerofoil

DEN 302 Applied Aerodynamics SURFACE PRESSURE MEASUREMENTS ON AN AEROFOIL IN TRANSONIC FLOW Abstract The objective of this exercise is to measure the pressure distribution across the surface on an aerofoil in a wind tunnel. The aerofoil is tested under several different Mach numbers from subsonic to supercritical. The purpose of measuring the pressure distributions is to assess the validity of the Prandtl-Glauert law and to discuss the changing chracteristics of the flow as the Mach number increases from subsonic to transonic.As a result of the experiment and computation of data, the aerofoil was found to have a critical Mach number of M=0. 732. Below this freestream Mach number the Prandtl-Glauert law predicted results very successfully. However, above this value, the law completely breaks down. This was found to be the result of local regions of supersonic flow and local shockwaves. Contents Abstract2 Apparatus2 1. Induction Wind Tunnel with Transonic Test Section2 2. Aerofoil mode l3 3. Mercury manometer3 Procedure3 Theory3 Results4 Discussion8 Transonic Flow8 Analysis9 Conclusion11 Bibliography11Apparatus 1. Induction Wind Tunnel with Transonic Test Section The tunnel used in this experiment has a transonic test section with liners, which, after the contraction, remain nominally parallel bar a slight divergence to accommodate for boundary layer growth on the walls of the test section. The liners on the top and bottom are ventilated with longitudinal slots backed by plenum chambers to reduce interference and blockage as the Mach number increase to transonic speeds. The working section dimensions are 89mm(width)*178mm(height). The stagnation pressure , p0? is close to the atmospheric pressure of the lab and with only a small error ,is taken to be equal to the settling chamber pressure. The reference staticpressure, p? , is measured via a pressure tapping in the floor of the working section, well upstream of the model so as to reduce the disturbance due to the model. The ‘freestream’ Mach number, M? , can be calculated by the ratio of static to stagnation pressure. The tunnel airspeed is controlled by varying the pressure of the injected air, with the highest Mach number that can be achieved by the tunnel being 0. 88. 2. Aerofoil modelThe model used is untapered and unswept, having the NACA 0012 symmetric section. The model chord length, c, is 90mm and the model has a maximum chord/thickness ratio of 12%. Non-dimensionalised co-ordinates of the aerofoil model are given in table 1 below. Pressure tappings, 1-8 , are placed along the upper surface of the model at the positions detailed in table 1. An additional tapping, 3a, is placed on the lower surface of the aerofoil at the same chordwise position as tapping 3. The reason for including the tapping on the lower surface is so that the model can be set at zero incidence by equalizing the pressures at 3 and 3a 3.Mercury manometer A multitube mercury manometer is used to record t he measurements from the tappings on the surface of the model. The manometer has a ‘locking’ mechanism which allows the mercury levels to be ‘frozen’ so that readings can be taken after the flow has stopped. This is useful as the wind tunnel is noisy. The slope of the manometer is 45 degrees. Procedure The atmospheric pressure is first recorded, pat, in inches of mercury. For a range of injected pressures, Pj, from 20 to 120Psi, the manometer readings are recorded for stagnation pressure (I0? , reference static pressure (I? ), and surface pressure form tappings on the model (In, for n=1-8 and 3a). Theory These equations are used in order to interpret and discuss the raw results achieved from the experiment. To convert a reading, I, from the mercury manometer into an absolute pressure, p, the following is used: p=pat ±l-latsin? (1) For isentropic flow of a perfect gas with ? =1. 4, the freestream Mach number,M? , is related to the ratio between the static and stagnation pressures by the equation: M? =2? -1p? p0? -? -1? -1. 0(2) Pressure coefficient, Cp , is given by:Cp=p-p? 12 U? 2(3) For compressible flow this can be rewritten as: Cp=2? M? 2pp? -1(4) The Prandtl-Glauert law states that the pressure coefficient, CPe, at a point on an aerofoil in compressible, sub-critical flow is related to the pressure coefficient, CPi, at the same point in in incompressible flow by the equation: CPe=CPi1-M? 2(5) Due to its basis in on thin aerofoil theory, this equation does not provide an exact solution. However it is deemed reasonably accurate for cases such as this in which thin aerofoils are tested at small incidence.The law does not hold in super-critical flow when local regions of supersonic flow and shockwaves appear. The value of the critical pressure coefficient, Cp*, according to local sonic conditions is calculated by: Cp*=10. 7M? 25+M? 263. 5-1for? =7/5(6) The co-ordinates for the NACA 0012 section are as follows: Figure 1-Co-ordinates for aerofoil (Motallebi, 2012) Results Given atmospheric conditions of: Patm=30. 65 in-Hg Tatm=21 °C The following results were achieved: Figure 2-Pressure coefficient vs x/c for M=0. 83566 Figure 3-Pressure coefficient vs x/c for M=0. 3119 Figure 4-Pressure coefficient vs x/c for M=0. 79367 Figure 5-Pressure coefficient vs x/c for M=0. 71798 Figure 6-Pressure coefficient vs x/c for M=0. 59547 Figure 7-Pressure coefficient vs x/c for M=0. 44456 Figure 8-Cp* and Cpminvs Mach Number From figure 7 the critical Mach number is able to be determined. The critical Mach number (the maximum velocity than can be achieved before local shock conditions arise) occurs at the point where the curves for Cp* and Cpmin cross. From figure 7 we can see that this value is, M? =0. 732. Discussion Transonic FlowTransonic flow occurs when ‘there is mixed sub and supersonic local flow in the same flow field. ’ (Mason, 2006) This generally occurs when free-stream Mach number is in the range of M=0. 7-1. 2. The local region of supersonic flow is generally ‘terminated’ by a normal shockwave resulting in the flow slowing down to subsonic speeds. Figure 8 below shows the typical progression of shockwaves as Mach number increases. At some critical Mach number (0. 72 in the case of Figure 8), the flow becomes sonic at a single point on the upper surface of the aerofoil.This point is where the flow reaches its highest local velocity. As seen in the figure, increasing the Mach number further, results in the development of an area of supersonic flow. Increasing the Mach number further again then moves the shockwave toward the trailing edge of the aerofoil and a normal shockwave will develop on the lower surface of the aerofoil. As seen in figure 8, approaching very close to Mach 1, the shockwaves move to the trailing edge of the aerofoil. For M>1, the flow behaves as expected for supersonic flow with a shockwave forming at the leading edge of the aerofoil.Figure 9-Pr ogression of shockwaves with increasing Mach number (H. H. Hurt, 1965) In normal subsonic flow, the drag is composed of 3 components-skin friction drag, pressure drag and induced drag. The drag in transonic is markedly increased due to changes to the pressure distribution. This increased drag encountered at transonic Mach numbers is known as wave drag. The wave drag is attributed to the formation of local shockwaves and the general instability of the flow. This drag increases at what is known as the drag divergence number (Mason, 2006).Once the transonic range is passed and true supersonic flow is achieved the drag decreases. Analysis From figure 7, the conclusion was reached that the critical Mach number was 0. 732. This means ultimately that in the experiment local shockwaves should be experienced somewhere along the aerofoil for Mach numbers M=0. 83566, 0. 83119 and 0. 79367. According to transonic theory, these shockwaves should be moving further along the length of the aerofoil as the freestream Mach number increases. To determine the approximate position of the shockwaves it is useful to look again at equation (4).Cp=2? M? 2pp? -1 Assuming constant p? , as static pressure in the test section is assumed to be constant and constant free stream Mach number as well, equation (4) may be written as: Cp=const. pconst. -1 Normal shockwaves usually present themselves as discontinuous data, particularly in stagnation pressure where there is a large drop. To detect the rough position of the shockwave on the aerofoil surface it is useful to look at the detected pressure by the different tappings and scrutinize the –Cpvs x/c graph to see where the drop in pressure occurs.Investigating the graphs for the supercritical Mach numbers yields these approximate positions: M| x/c, %| 0. 835661| 40-60| 0. 831199| 35-55| 0. 793676| 25-45| Figure 10- Table showing approximate position of shockwave According to the theory described earlier, these results are correct as it demonstrates the shockwave moving further along the aerofoil as the Mach number increases. As seen in figure 8, given a sufficiently high Mach number, a shock may also occur on the lower surface of the wing. This can be seen for M=0. 835661, in figure 1, where there is a marked difference in pressure between tappings 3 and 3a.The theoretical curves on each –Cpvs x/c graph were designed using the Prandtl-Glauert law. As mentioned earlier, this law is based on thin aerofoil theory, meaning it is not exact and there are sometimes large errors between the proposed theoretical values and the experimental values achieved. These large errors are seen most clearly in the higher Mach numbers. This is because in the transonic range, where there is a mixture of sub and supersonic flow, local shockwaves occur and the theoretical curves do not take shockwaves into account.Hence, the theory breaks down when the freestream Mach number exceeds the critical Mach number for the aerofoil. At l ower Mach numbers, the theoretical values line up reasonably well with those achieved through experiment. There only seems to be some error between the two, mainly arising in the 15-25% range. However, overall the Prandtl-Glauert law seems to be reasonably accurate as long as the Mach number remains sub-critical. The experiment itself was successful. The rough position of the shockwave and the critical Mach number were able to be identified.There are however some sources of inaccuracy or error that can be addressed of the experiment is to be repeated for ‘bettter’ results. Aside from the normal human errors made during experimentation the apparatus itself could be improved. Pressure tapping 1 (the closest to the leading edge) and pressure tapping 8 (the closest to the trailing edge) were placed at 6. 5% and 75% respectively. What this means is that they are not centralized relative to the leading and trailing edge effectively meaning it is not able to be determined whet her or not the pressure is conserved.At a zero angle of incidence, the pressure at the tip of the leading edge should be equal to the pressure at the tip of the trailing edge. To improve this pressure tappings should exist at the LE and TE and possibly more pressure tappings across the aerofoil surface to provide more points for recording. Another source of improvement could be using a larger test section so that there is absolutely no disturbance in measuring the static pressure. However, this may only produce a minute difference in the data and may not be worthwhile for such little gain. ConclusionAs desired, a symmetric aerofoil was tested in transonic flow and the experimental results were compared to the theoretical values predicted by the PrandtlGlauert law. In the cases where there was a large disparity between experimental and theoretical results, an explanation was given, relying on the theory behind transonic flow. Bibliography H. H. Hurt, J. (1965). Aerodynamics for Naval Aviators. Naval Air Systems Command. Mason. (2006). Transonic aerodynamics of airfoils and wings. Virginia Tech. Motallebi. (2012). Surface Pressure Measurements on an Aerofoil in Transonic Flow. London: Queen Mary University of London.

English vs. Spanish Colonization Essay

From 1500 to 1700, the English colonization of the Chesapeake region and the Spanish colonization of the Central/South American region varied greatly in their primary motivations for settlement and the lasting effects imprinted into both societies. The English motives in settling the Chesapeake region were more economically-based, seeking greater economic opportunity and employment, while the Spanish effort took on a more religious approach that ended up having long-term effects on the way their culture and society developed. The effects both colonies felt differed in many ways, primarily due to the varying motivational influences felt by the English and the Spanish. However, similarities in colonial motivations and cultural impacts were present between both societies. English colonization of the Chesapeake region revolved around economic gain and opportunity that colonizers believed could be found in the New World. Overcrowding in England led to a desire for expansion and better emp loyment options for English settlers. Rumors of gold discovery in the New World also spurred an intense frenzy that English colonizers sought to pursue, resulting in the development of societies poorly suited for colonial life when gold was never found. On the other hand, Spanish colonization of Central and South America began with the Spanish conquistadors, who used the saying â€Å"God, Gold, and Glory† to describe their motivations for colonization. The dominant motivational force for the Spanish was the religious aspect, where conquistadors sought to spread Christianity throughout Central and South America. The â€Å"Glory† prospect was heightened by the yearning for Spain’s dominance over the Western Hemisphere, which was thought to be obtained through unifying native peoples through Bailey Kargo! IB HOTA 3rd period the Christian religion. Similar to one aspect of English motivations, the Spanish also sought to find gold and riches that they thought the New World had to offer. When Christopher Colombus returned from his expedition to the New World, he reported to the Spanish crown his confidence in the quest for wealth in this new land. He described his encounters with the natives where they traded him gold for various items, and even claimed he saw gold in the rivers. This fueled the Spanish obsession in their ultimate quest for wealth and riches. The effects of settling the Chesapeake region reflected the English economic motivations for colonization there. When the Jamestown Colony was founded in 1607, settlers found themselves ill-prepared for establishing a structured colony, especially when they were solely prepared for discovering gold. The Jamestown Colony struggled immensely at first due to lack of supplies and skills needed to create the foundations of a colonial society. However, John Rolfe’s introduction of tobacco to the region completely transformed the economy and played a key role in saving the Jamestown colony. Tobacco became a booming industry and plantation owners needed more workers for cheap labor. As a result, African slaves were introduced into the population to meet these needs, stimulating a new industry: the slave trade. The successful tobacco economy was also capable of financing the importation of indentured servants, which also played a major role in the labor force and became an integral part of the Chesapeake’s economy. Wealthy landowners were now able to have more help on their plantations and have access to more land, while servants now had the ability to own land and create a name for themselves among the colonies. Unlike English colonization, Spanish colonization in the Americas completely decimated native populations. The introduction of European diseases, particularly smallpox, along with Bailey Kargo! IB HOTA 3rd period updated European weaponry decimated Indian culture and transformed their way of life due to lack of immunity to such diseases and more primitive weapons. Native populations were seen as much weaker compared to the conquistadors and their armies, making them extremely easy to conquer. A cultural angle unique to the Spanish settlements was the creation of the Mestizo culture. Unlike the English, the Spanish conquerors and Native Americans intermarried, allowing for a completely new race to develop and contribute to society. Although they were regarded as lesser than other races and looked down upon, the creation of the Mestizo culture proved to become a unique impact of Spanish colonization that later English settlers chose not to conform to. The introduction of the encomienda system was also a significant effect that became an integral part of Spanish society. When the Spanish conquered natives, these natives were required to perform work for Spanish landowners. In return, the natives would receive protection from other tribes and the conversion to the Christian faith. This system was extremely beneficial to the colonists who received land and gained Christian converts, but many native tribes were reduced to involuntary servitude that further devastated Indian populations in addition to disease and war. The differing motivations behind English colonization of the Chesapeake region and the Spanish of Latin America proved to directly affect the way each colonies were formed from 1500 to 1700. English colonization revolved around a more economic basis, while the Spanish focused more on religious aspects that managed to integrate their way into its economy as well. Despite these differences, both societies found a common motivation in the search for gold and riches, and both incorporated different forms of slavery, indentured servitude and African slaves in the Chesapeake and the encomienda system in Latin America, into their economies that stimulated Bailey Kargo! IB HOTA 3rd period each colony’s development. The growth and expansion of both colonization efforts eventually would fuel the newfound desire of other European nations to join the race to the Americas in an attempt to assert their dominance and further diversify societies of the New World.